This section contains a comprehensive list of references, notes on a particular kind of glass decay, called criselling, and notes on the classification methods used. Updated February 2002.
anon. "Excavations in Southwark, 1973-76....", Museum of London & LAMAS Joint publication No 3.
Alvey, R.C., "A cesspit excavation....Nottingham", Trans. Thoroton Society, 1973, vol 77, pp 68-71.
Ashurst, D., Excavations at the 17th-18th century Glasshouse at Bolsterstone...., Post-Medieval Archaeology 21 (1987) pp147-226.
Ashurst, D., The History of South Yorkshire Glass, J.R.Collis, c1993.
Baddeley, W. S., "The glasshouse at Nailsworth - 16th and 17th C..", Gloucester Archelogical Society, 1920.
Balderson, M., (ed), "James Claypoole's Letter Book London and Philadelphia 1681-1684", The Huntington Library 1967.
Baldwin, Simeon E. "American Business Corporations Before 1786", American Historical Review, volume 8, 1902-1903.
Barrington-Haynes, E., Glass through the ages, Pelican (1959).
Bendry, R., The Falcon Brick Cone Glass House, in The Glass Circle Journal Vol 8, 1996, pp 54-69.
Boulton, M.G., "Glass" in Shoesmith, R., Hereford City Excavations Vol 3, Council for British Archaeology, 1985 pp24-28.
Buckley, F., "Old London Drinking Glasses", 1913
Buckley, F., "Old London Glasshouses", 1915
Buckley, F., "Old English Glass", 1925.
Buckley, F., " "Documentary" Old English Glass", Antique Collector, October 1931, pp 585-586.
Buckley, F., "17th C English Table Glass", Antique Collector, 1936, pp 150-152.
Burrow, C., "Excavations at 5-8 Fore Street, Taunton" in Burrow, I., Somerset Archaeology... 132, 1988, pp 136-137.
Chandler, P., Inside an Early Glasshouse, The Blackcountryman, Summer 1994, Vol 27 No 3, pp 14-19 & Autumn 1994, Vol 27 No 4, pp 26-31.
Charleston, J., "17th Century Glass", Guildhall Museum, 1968.
Charleston, R.J., "George Ravenscroft: ..... Crystalline Glasses", J. Glass Studies, 1968, vol 10, pp 156-167.
Charleston,R.J., "Glass from excavation...Waltham Abbey", J. Post Med. Arch. vol 3, 1969, pp 94-95.
Charleston, R.J., "The gates of Roman Lincoln, Glass Vessels ...", Archaeologia, vol 104, 1973, pp 182-186.
Charleston, R.J., "Vessel Glass/An Excavation...Buckingham", in Hall, R.A., Records of Buckinghamshire, vol 20, 1975, pp 100-133.
Charleston, R.J, "Glass furnaces through the ages", Corning Journal of Glass Studies, 1978.
Charleston, R.J., "Some aspects of 17th C glass found in England", Annales Ass. Internationale pour L'histoire du Verre, 7, 1979, pp 283-297.
Charleston,R.J. "16th to 17th C. English Glass", Bul. Ass. Internationale pour L'histoire du Verre, 8, 1980, pp 77-99.
Charleston, R.J. "The Glass" in Allen, J.P. (ed) Medieval and Post Medieval Finds from Exeter 1971-1980, pp 274-277.
Charleston, R.J. and Vince, A.G., "Excavations at Aldgate, 1974", in Thompson, A. et al, J. Post Med. Arch., 1984, vol 18, pp 84-90.
Charleston, R.J., English Glass, 1984.
Charleston, R.J.," Beeston Castle, Cheshire: The 17th C Glass", H.B.& M.C. Arch. Rep. 23, 1993, pp 170-172.
Cheek, Mary M., "The Cooperative venture of the Union Glass Works, Kensington, Pennsylvania, 1826-1842", Corning Journal of Glass Studies, Vol 39, 1997, p. 95.
Cocroft, W. D., "Post Medieval Glass from West Bromwich Manor House", Trans. South Staffs. Arch. & Hist. Soc. vol 33, 1991-2, pp 25-41.
Conkling, F.J., "Salem and the Conkling Family", Hist. Coll of the Essex Institute, 1894 Vol 31, pp 43-53.
Crossley, D., "Sir William Clavell's glasshouse at Kimmeridge", Archaeological Journal vol 144, 1987, pp 340-382.
Dent, J., " The Quest for Nonsuch ", 1981.
Elville, E.M., "English Glass in the 17th Century", Glass vol 39, December 1962, pp 599-602.
Fox, R., & Lewis, E., "William Overton and Glass making in Buriton", Petersfeild Monographs I, 1982.
Fox, R., and Barton, K.J., "Excavations at Oyster St, Portsmouth, Hants.", J. Post. Med. Arch., 1986 vol 20 pp 223-230.
Francis, P., Fox, R., and Barton, K.J., Excavations at Oyster St, Portsmouth, Hants, J. Post Med. Arch.20 (1986) pp 223-230.
Francis, P., "The development of lead glass- the European Connection", Apollo, February 2000, Vol 111, pp 47-53.
Fryer, K, Selley, A., Excavations of a pit at 16 Tunsgate, Guildford Surrey, 1991, J. Post Med. Arch. 31 (1997) pp 139-230.
Gillingham, H.E., Pottery, China & G. making in Philadelphia, 1930.
Godfrey, E.S., "Development of English Glassmaking 1560-1640", 1975.
Gooder, E., "Finds from Temple Balsall", J. Post Med. Arch. 18, 1984, pp 221- 230.
Graham, F., "Some aspects of English Glass 1665-1685: Lead", Apollo, 1937, pp 9-15.
Graham, F., "Some aspects of English Glass 1665-1685: Soda", Apollo, 1937, pp 316-320.
Green, H.J.M., "Excavations of Palace Defences, Westminister", J.Brit.Arch.Assoc. vol 129, 1976, pp 59-76.
Greenslade, M.W., A History of Amblecote and Jenkins, J.G.,The Staffordshire Glass Industry, Dudley 1989.
Guttery, D.R., From Broad Glass to cut crystal, London 1956.
Harden, H.J., Notes on the Stourbridge Glass Trade, Dudley 1977.
Hartshorne, A., "Old English Glasses", 1897.
Haslan, J., "The Glass" in Hassall,T.G. et.al."Excavations in St Ebbe's", Oxonesia, Vol XIX 1984, Oxford 1985 pp 240-243.
Hedig, F.W., Das Glas, 1923
Hemingway, J., "History & Archaeology of a Glasshouse site", Blackcountryman vol 33 no 1, 1999, pp 86-91.
Henkes, H.E., "Glas zonder glans - Glass without gloss", Rotterdam Papers 9, 1994.
Hildyard,R., "Glass collecting in Britain...", Burlington Magazine 136, May 1994, pp 303-307.
Horne, J., Nonsuch, 1994.
Howard, A.L., The Worshipful Company of Glass-Sellers, 1940.
Kimmball, J., "The First Glass Factory - Where?", Hist. Coll of the Essex Institute 1, Jan 1879, Vol 16, pp 1-7.
Lawrence, G.F., "Glass from London Excavations", in Churchill, A., Catalogue of Old English Glass, 1937, pp 11-12.
Leares, J.M., "Excavations at Montgomery Castle", Arch. Camb., 1968, pp 140-147.
Leeds, E.T., "Glass vessels of the 17th C and later", Oxonensia, 1938, vol 111, pp 153- 161.
London Museum , Glass in London, (HMSO)1970.
Marsden, P., "A 17th C Boat Found in London", J. Post. Med. Arch. vol 5, 1971, pp 96-97.
Mayes, P., "Port Royal Jamaica - Excavations 1969-70", Jamaica National Trust Commission, 197?, pp 123-125.
Mackinder, A., & Blatherwick, S., Bankside - Excavations at Benbow House, Southwark, London SE , MOLAS Archaeology Studies Series 3, 2000
Macleod, C., "Accident or Design? George Ravenscroft's Patent and the Invention of Lead Crystal Glass" Technology & Culture Oct. 1987, Vol 28, no 4, pp 776-803.
Matiskainen, H., & Haggren, G., "Finland’s oldest glass furances", Annales AIHV 13, 1995, pp. 449-451.
McClenaghan, P.E., "Drinking Glasses from Port Royal, Jamaica c.1630-1740...", Texas A&M; University Thesis, 1988.
Might, R.E., "17thC Glass Houses in America" Glass Cone 1990 Vol 25, p 4.
Moir, D., "Finds Appraisal for Blomfield House,..", Finds Research Group data sheet, 1991.
Moody, B. E., "The life of George Ravenscroft", Glass Technology volume 29, 1988. Addendum, Glass Technology volume 30, 1989.
Moore, N. Hudson, "Old Glass, European and American" 1946 edition.
Moorhouse, S., "Finds from Basing House, Hampshire", J. Post med. Arch vol 5, 1971, pp| 63-67.
Moretti, C., "Raw materials used by the Murano glass makers..", Glass Technology 1983, Vol 24 pp 177-183.
Morris, Richard B., "Government and Labor in Early America", Octagon Books, 1975.
Morgeson, S., "Norwich Households", East Anglian Acheology, 1995.
Neri, trans Merre, C., "Art of Glass", 1662.
Noel Hume, I., "Excavations....Norwich: Glass objects", Norfolk Archaeology vol 31, 1955, pp 87-91.
Noel Hume, I., "Tudor & Early Stuart Glasses found in London", Connoisseur vol 150, 1962, pp 269-273.
Noel Hume, I., "Some English Glass from Colonial Virginia", Antiques, July 1963, pp 68- 71.
Noel Hume, I., "Collection of Glass from Port Royal, Jamaica", Historical Archaeology, 1968, pp 5-34.
Noel Hume, I., "A find of Elizabethan ale glasses", Connoiseur, 1968, pp259-261.
Noel Hume, I., Glass in the Colonial Williamsburg Archaeological Collections, Colonial Williamsburg, 1969.
Noel Hume, I., Artifacts of Colonial America, New York 1976 pp 184-195.
Oswald, A., & Phillips,H, "A restoration glass hoard from Gracechurch Street", Connoisseur vol 124, 1948, pp 30-36.
Palmer, Arlene M., "Aspects of Glassmaking in Eighteenth-Century America", Annales of the 8th Congress of the AIHV, 1979.
Palmer, Arlene M., "A Philadelphia Glasshouse 1794-1797", Corning Journal of Glass Studies, Vol 21, 1979, p. 104.
Percival, M., The Glass Collector, 1918.
Powell, H.J., Glass-Making in England, 1923.
Rendel, R., "The true identity of George Ravenscroft, Glassman", Catholic Record Society, 1975.
Russell, G.G., "S for Savoy?", Connoisseur 1960, 146 p 271.
Sheppard, C.R.S, & Smith,J.P, "Glass from the Restoration to Regency", 1990.
Simpson, K.M., "George Ravenscroft & the Royal Society" unpublished 1985.
Stewart, Michael, "The Indian Town of Playwicki", Paper prepared for the 1995 meeting of the Eastern States Archaeological Federation, and the 1996 meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Stuart, D.R.M., Glass in Norfolk, privately printed 1997.
Tait, H., "Glass with chequered-trail decorations", J. Glass Studies, 9, 1967, pp 94-112.
Thorpe, W.A., A History of English & Irish Glass, 1929.
Thorpe, W.A., "English Glassware in the XVIIth Century" in Churchill, A., Catalogue of Old English Glass, 1937, pp13-25.
Thorpe, W.A., " The glass sellers bills at Wobun Abbey", JSGT No. 91, 1938.
Thorpe, W.A., "English Glassware in the Seventeenth Century", in Churchill, A., Glass Notes 16, 1956, pp 27-36.
Thorpe, W.A., "English Glass", 1961.
Trease, G., Samuel Pepys and his world, Book Club Associates, 1973.
Tyzack, Don, Glass, Tools & Tyzacks, Privately published 1995.
Watkins, L.Woodside, "American Glass and Glassmaking", 1950, p. 23.
Watts, D.C., "How did George Ravenscroft discover lead crystal?", in Charleston, et al., The Glass Circle, 1975, vol 2, pp 71-84.
Watts, D.C., " Why George Ravenscroft introduced lead oxide...", Glass Technology, vol 31, 1990.
Watts, D.C., "Identifying glass houses operating on the south bank", Glass Technology, April 1993, Vol 34, iss 2, pp 83-4.
Witt, Cleo, Weeden, Cyril, & Palmer Schwind, Arelene, "Bristol Glass" 1984, p.84.
Young, C.S.B., "Notes on an excavation at Drury Hill,..", J. Post Med. Arch. 4, 1970, pp 177-178.
Criselling is the name of a glass defect resulting from the use of an unstable glass mixture. Progressively more alkali from the glass is lost, through dissolving into airborne moisture. This results in a network of fine surface cracks. If the process is allowed to continue the glass will disintegrate. Glass chemistry was not well understood in the seventeenth century, so some of the new developments in glass manufacture had only marginal stability. The glass makers lacked the ability to carefully control both the quantities and the purity of the materials in the batch. The problem was recognised within months of the first production of such glasses. Since it is progressive in nature, such glasses would have broken up many years ago. After discovering the problem, the glass makers were able to partially rectify it. The criselled glasses which we have now would have all been considered perfect during the lifetimes of the manufacturers.
The glass illustrated is in the Science Museum in London. The taper stem has four vertical indentations to give it a quatrefoil-shaped cross-section.
Examples of mould blown, cigar, inverted baluster, melon-knopped, 'Greene' , taper, quatrefoil knop and winged stems. The melon-knopped glass has an 'open' bowl and the 'Greene' glass has a bucket bowl. The last two have parts of straight funnel (or conical) bowls but the remainer have round funnel bowls (or parts thereof). The inverted-baluster and melon-knopped glasses have folded feel and the greene and taper stems have plain feet. Five groups are not illustrated on this page. These are beakers, serpent stems, multi-knop stems, stems with inverted baluster knops and plain stems.
This classification is based on that developed for eighteenth-century drinking-glasses by E. Barrington-Haynes. Alpha-numeric groups are used to represent the features of a complete stemmed glass or a stem-fragment. This introduction describes how the classification works. Since many excavated seventeenth-century drinking glasses are incomplete, an 'o' is used in the middle of a classification group to denote that a part is missing. In the list of glasses which follows, only the most complete examples are recorded, i.e. the existence of a vessel fragment with sufficient remaining to allow identification of its bowl, stem and foot types means that fragments which are similar, but less complete, are not separately identified. The first character is a numeral that shows the main stem type; for example, all the tapering stems belong to group 6. The second character is a capital letter. It conveys details about the form of the stem and is followed by a lower-case letter indicating that the stem is solid, hollow or partially hollow. The last two groups convey information about the bowl and foot of the glass. Bowl descriptions are necessarily fairly coarse, since it is difficult to be precise if only a small part of the bowl remains. Shapes are given by lower-case roman numerals that are common for all 17th C stem types: (the numeral viiii is used instead of the correct form ix, so that it can be easily sorted in a computer data-base)
Foot designations are simple, with 'f' denoting a foot with a folded rim, 'p' a plain-edged foot and 'm' a plain-edged foot with moulded decoration. In the classifications of some early 17th C. stem forms, the basic form of the stem includes strengthening mereses at the stem-to-bowl and the stem-to-foot junctions.
Reference: Barrington-Hayes, E., Glass Trough the Ages, 1959 (and in Arthur Churchill, "Glass-Notes" Series)
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